r y 4^ 

New York State Education Department 

Advance sheets of 

Syllabus for Secondary Schools 

1910 



HOME ECONOMICS 



Foods and housekeeping 3 

Dome&tic art 18 



H4S2r-Myio-2ooo 



ALBANY 

NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 
1910 



STATE OF NEW YORK ^ ^ 

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT ^\ j. ^ 



Regents of the University ^\^ y\ \ "0 



With years when terms expire ^^ \^ 



1913 Whitelaw Reid M.A. LL.D. D.C.L. Chancellor New'York 

1917 St Clair McKelway M.A. LL. D.Vice Chancellor Brooklyn 

1919 Daniel Beach Ph D. LL.D. ----- Watkins 

1914 Pliny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. - - - - -Palmyra 
1912 T. Guilford Smith M.A. C.E. LL.D. - - - Buffalo 

1918 William Nottingham M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. - - Syracuse 
1922 Chester S. Lord M.A. LL.D. - - - - - New York 

1915 Albert Vander Veer M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. Albany 
1911 Edward Lauterbach M.A. LL.D. - - - - New York 

1920 Eugene A. Philbin LL.B. LL.D. - - - - New York 

1916 Lucian L. Shedden LL.B. LL.D. - - - - Plattsburg 

1921 Francis M. Carpenter ------ - Mount Kisco 

Commissioner of Education 

Andrew S. Draper LL.B. LL.D. 

Assistant Commissioners 

Augustus S. Downing M.A. Pd.D. LL.D. First Assistant 
Frank Rollins Ph.D. Second Assistant 
Thomas E. Finegan M.A. Pd.D. Third Assistant 

Director of State Library 

James I. Wyer, Jr, M.L.S. 

Director of Science and State Museum 

John M. Clarke Ph.D. Sc.D. LL.D. 

Chiefs of Divisions 

Administration, Harlan H. Horner B.A. 

Attendance, James D. Sullivan 

Educational Extension, William R. Eastman M.A. M.L.S. 

Examinations, Charles F. Wheelock B.S. LL.D. 

Inspections, Frank H. Wood M.A. 

Law, Frank B. Gilbert B.A. 

School Libraries, Charles E. Fitch L.H.D. 

Statistics, Hiram C. Case 

Trades Schools, Arthur D. Dean B.S. 

Visual Instruction, Alfred W. Abrams Ph.B. 



Principals and teachers are requested to send ciiticisms and 
suggestions to the Second Assistant Commissioner, Education 
Department, Albany, N. Y. 



^HOME ECONOMICS 

FOODS AND HOUSEKEEPING 

Time: five periods a week. One year 
Suggestions to the teacher in the use of the syllabus 

Schools with fair equipment will be able to carry on the entire 
course on foods and housekeeping as here outlined. Schools not 
e(|uipped to undertake the complete course may select from the 
topics offered such as they are able to give, remembering always 
that the most important topics are those that relate to the common 
staple articles of food. 

This topic of foods and cookery should be looked upon by the 
teacher as a study of food economics, in the management of the 
home; and, again, as an important element in the economy of the 
nation. Skill in the practical use of materials, and knowledge of 
economical purchase and wise selection for nutrition are of equal 
importance. To give a specific example : there is very definite sci- 
entific knowledge in regard to the effect of heat upon the protein 
and the connective tissues of meat. If we would apply this to the 
cookery of cheap meats, we should be utilizing a valuable form of 
food which is frequently discarded. If in addition to the scientific 
a])plication of heat, we add the artistic touch in the way of savory 
flavors we shoukl accomplish the double purpose of making a nutri- 
tive food agreeable and of saving money. We need this kind of 
cookery much more than the making of rich croquettes and similar 
dishes. To take from the scientific expert the sound foundation for 
]M-actical work and to give it to her pupils in workable and at- 
tractive form should be the study of the household arts teacher. 
This is trul}- applied science and, more than that, it is a form of 
ec(3nomic and ethical teaching. 

In the average high school it is not possible to give highly special- 
ized work in nutrition, but much can be done in the discussion of 
what constitutes a well balanced meal, both in amount and in 
variety, and, in addition to this, the cost of meals. This is one of 
the greatest needs at present. 

In those high schools where the pupils have work in the natural 
sciences that parallels or precedes the course in foods, the teacher 

' In the preparation of the syllabu.'; in home eronomics valuable assistance has been ren- 
dered by professors in Teachers College. Columbia University. 

D. OF D. 

SEP 12 »9m 



may easily add more scientific experiments than are indicated in 
this syllabus and may develop more fully the scientific side of the 
work. 

This syllabus is arranged by topics, but only approximately in 
the order in which the topics can be given. The number of lessons 
under each topic is left to the discretion of the teacher. Some of 
the topics would form part of a lesson only in connection with cer- 
tain other to])ics. The sequence must be modified to suit 
circumstances. 

In the first few topics the pupil is introduced to the most im- 
portant food principles, with the exception of sugar. The sugar 
topic is ni)t usually looked upon as important, but is more valual)le 
than at first sight appears. It naturally is put into a course at 
some festival time. .A. candy lesson may l)e made valuable if the 
cost of the candy is discussed, as well as the adulterations in Irtw- 
priced candy found in the stores. 

After the topics, fruit, milk, egg>, cereals, fats and oils, the 
other topics must be arranged as seems wise to the teacher. The 
cost of food materials at different seasons must be taken into ac- 
count, and this sometimes alters the sequence materially. The 
\egetable is a good topic to follow fats and oils. Great stress 
should be laid upon the cookery of vegetables, since ordinary 
processes waste much nutritive material in the shape of mineral 
salts. The standard of vegetable cooker}- in this counirv is not a 
high one. 

Under the topic meat it is urged that the cookery of inexpensive 
cuts be luade especially prominent. Mere slow cooking of course 
must be emphasized and the teacher must make clear that long cook- 
ing does not of necessity waste fuel. There is doubtless a preju- 
dice against tough meat dishes that can only be overcome by 
])roving that they are not only palatable in an ordinary degree, but 
may be made truly delicious. A practical difificulty exists for the 
teacher in the fact that the processes are slow and the cooking 
lessons short. Ingenuity is necessary here in planning ways and 
means, as for instance, having ])upils come early to start the process, 
or having one class finish the lessons another has begun, having 
all see the product. This question is so important that it is worth 
much time and thought. The question of meat substitutes and 
the excessive u.se of meat should also be discussed. 

The topic of meals does not of necessity come late in the course, 
simply because it appears late in the syllabus. Meals may be dis- 



cussed at the very beginning of tlie course; as for instance, in the 
(hscussion of milk as a food, it may he treated as the meal for the 
infant and contrasted with the meal for the grown person, the same 
elements being present in both, but in different forms. A sim|)le 
meal may be planned early in the course. The idea of the mccd 
holds all the other topics together and gives the course unity. This 
thought can be kept before the pupils even when they are not actu- 
ally preparing the meal, by discussing, for a few minutes, the (|ues- 
tion of the meal for which the dish of the day is appropriate. The 
social element entering into the serving of the meal is of incalculable 
value in holding the interest of the pupils. 

Another topic that need not be treated entirely by itself is that 
of beverages. A given beverage can be discussed and made while 
baking is going on for instance, or in connection with some house- 
keeping lesson. 

Sanitation of the kitchen and house, and the idea of cleanliness 
is present in all lessons, but also needs certain definite periods f(^r 
discussion. This is also true of the topic fuels, etc. WHiile the 
use of the stove and the care of utensils is emphasized at the l)egin- 
ning of the course, it must constantly l)e kept in the mind of the 
pupils. This is also true of cooking jirocesses. 

The question of the method of the recitation in household arts is 
of supreme importance. It is easy for the lesson to degenerate into 
the mere routine following of a printed recipe; yet there is no 
subject richer in opjiortunity for observation, induction, reasoning, 
deduction and experiment. In the high .-chool a certain amount 
of time should be definitely set aside -for discussion. If five peri- 
ods a week are allowed, one should be given to discussion and four 
to laboratory work; if onl\- four are allowed by the schedule, one 
period still should be assigned to recitation work. This recitation time 
should be given to the ];)re]:)aration for laboratory work, discussion 
of the results of j^revious ex]>eriments, and the discussion of any 
ideas that are to be developed. The dearth of textbooks and the 
fact that no time is allowed for outside preparation make it diffi- 
cult for the teacher : yet there is some printed materia! available, 
and by lecture and by notes, the instructor can give her pupils 
subject-matter for which she should hold them resjionsible. Tn 
laboratory \vork there is rich opportunity for training the pupils 
in responsibility of thought and action. The constant aim shotdd 
be to develop initiative and independence, and never to permit the 
following of directions by rote. The fear that first results may not 



6 

be perfect is a source of hindrance to the teacher. Where the 
pupil is led to experiment, results may not at first be good ; but if 
these experiments are followed up and repeated, and independent 
work continued, better results will be assured in the end. 

Reading references. The high school teacher is much hampered 
by the lack of good textbooks for her pupils. There is no one vol- 
ume to be recommended. The school library should contain The 
Library of Home Ecoiioinics, published by the American School of 
Home Economics. Chicago. The pamphlets in the reading course 
for farmers' wive^. published by the School of Agriculture at Cor- 
nel] University contain a great deal of useful material, much of 
which is in a form adapted to high school pupils. Two of these 
on nutrition are very suggestive in the planning of balanced menus. 
These may be put into the hands of the pu])ils. for cmistant refer- 
ence. For the teacher the Farmers' Bulletins and the pamphlets on 
nutrition issued by the Department of Agriculture, Washington, are 
readily available and always helpful. .An excellent book for the 
teacher is Dr Harrington's Practical Hygiene. This book is accu- 
rate and up-to-date and covers many topics. A good, standard cook- 
book is useful for reference. 

A weekly journal that deals in a rational way with current events 
is indispensable to the household arts teacher. In ^uch a journal 
discussions of the standard and cost of living are frequently found, 
as well as other aspects of conditions that affect the home. 

I Classification of food principles' 

lAIiULATION I'OR T1:ACIIEK.S' Kl•:l•EKE^•CE 

1 Elements recpired by the body 
Carbon Calcium 
Hydrogen Magnesium 
Oxvgen Sodium 
Nitrogen Potassium 
Sulphur Iodine (traces) 
T^hosphorus Fluorine (traces) 
Iron 

2 Food principles furnishing these elements 

Proteins — furnish carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sul- 
phur and sometimes phosphorus 
Fats — furnish carbon, hydrogen and oxygen 
Carbohydrates — furnish carbon, hydrogen and oxygen 

I See also Farmers' Wives' Bulletins, New York State College of .Agriculture, Cornell 
University, Ithaca. N. Y. 

No. 6, Human Nutrition, Part I; No. - . Human Nutrition. Part II. 



Mineral matter — furnishes phosphorus, irou, calcium, mag- 
nesium, sodium, potassium, iodine, fluc>rine 
Water — furnishes hydrogen and oxygen 

3 General functions of these food principles 
« To supply energy 

b To supply huilding material 
c To regulate hody processes 

4 Special functions of each food principle 

Proteins- — supply energy ; nitrogen, sulphur, aud sometimes 

phosphorus 
Fats — supply energy in the most concentrated form 
Carbohydrates — supply energy in the most economical form 
Mineral matter — supplies building material, except nitrogen 

and sulphur, and helps to regulate body functions 
Water — supplies building material (about 60^' of body being 

water) and helps to regulate body processes 

5 Examples of foodstuffs rich in each food principle 



Proteins 

Eggs 

Milk 

Cheese 

Lean meats 

Fish 
Fats 

Cream 

Butter 

Meat fats 

Vegetable oils 

Nuts 

Yolk of egg 
Carbohydrates 

Cereals and cereal product? 

Potatoes and other starchy 
vegetables 



Chestnuts 

Sweet fruits 

Sugar 
Mineral matter 

Milk 

Green vegetables 

Fruits 

Whole wheat and other whole 
cereal products 

Egg yolk 
Water 

Fresh fruits 

Fresh vegetables 

Milk 

Beverages, including water as 
such 



II Principles of cookery 

Sec each food material 

III Fuels, cooking apparatus and cooking processes 

I Compare coal. wood, kerosene and gas; circumstances under 
which these fuels are practicable to use; comparative cost and 
convenience : structure of a good stove for a given kind of 
fuel : economv in manaeement 



2 Necessary cooking utensils ; materials best for different uses ; 
cost of equipping a kitchen 

3 Temperature of the diff'erent cooking processes ; housekeeper's 
tests for deciding temperatures 

a Heat froan coal, charcoal, wood or gas 

(i) Toasting — surfaces of food exposed and turned for 
browning 

(2) Broiling — thin portion of meat or fish exposed and 
tunned for searing, browning, and rapid cooking of the 
interior 

(3) Roasting — thicker cuts of meat exposed and turned 
frequently for searing, browning, and cooking of interior. 
The portion of food must be at a greater distance from 
the source of heat than in broiling in order that the outer 
crust may not be burned while the interior remains raw 

b Heat thix)ugh an intervening medium 

(1) Water as a medium 

(a j Boiling. Cooking in boiling water ; temperature 
212° F. 

(b) Simmering or stewing; cooking in water below the 
boiling temperature from 180° F. to about 200° F. 

(c) Steaming; cooking in a receptacle into which steam 
penetrates, 212° F. or in a clo^^ed receptacle surrounded 
by steam or boiling water, as in certain steamers, or a 
double boiler ; temperature about 200-8° F. 

(2) Fat. the medium 

Deep fat frying, temperature 35o°-40O° F. 

(3) Heated surfaces, the medium 

(a) Pan broiling. Cooking of chops or steaks in iron 
pan without additional fat 

{b) Saute; cooking" in heated pan with a smalli amount 
of fat ; enough fat merely to prevent the food from 
sticking to the pan and to hasten the process of 
browning 

(c) Baking; cooking in a heated oven; temperature from 
300°-400° F. 

[{d) Braizing or pot roasting; cooking in an ircvn or earth- 
ern vessel with moisture, closely covered, either on stove 
top or in oven. The browning of the meat occurs either 
at the beginning or the end of the process. The moisture 
keeps the temperature down to the boiling point of water. 



9 

IV Water 

An important factor in nutrition ; does not supply energy to the 
body ; is a solvent, a carrier and a heat regulator. Water is 
contained in all foods and beverages ; average anxnuit of 
water given ofif by the body daily, about 4>1> pints ; water 
taken in with solid food, about 2]/^ pints; water to be added 
in fluids, about 2^4 pints ; at least a quart of this fluid should 
be clear water ; when water contains in excess a mioeral 
like lime, it should be boiled to precipitate the lime before 
drinking : great care must be takeu to insure purity of water 
supply, both municipal and local. In case of municipal 
supply the sources must be carefully guarded and inspected ; 
in case of local supplies the soutce must be guarded from 
contamination by waste products. After heavy rains ami 
floods it is well to boil drinking water ; in case of a preva- 
lent epidemic, such as typhoid fever, drinking water should 
be boiled for at least half an hour. Where water contai^ns 
sediment, filters may be used, but they should be frequently 
cleansed. 
Uses in cookery : Valuable as a cooking medium ; boils at 
212° F. ; the temperature of steam is the same except under 
pressure ; valuable as a cooking medium when below the 
boiling point, for such processes as stewing; its freezing point 
is T^2° ¥., which is reduced by mixture with salt, in which 
case it serves as a freezing medium ; it forms the basis of 
all beverages. 
Practical work : Boil water in Florence flask using ther- 
mometer, noting the appearance before and at the boiling 
point ; test the temperature of steam just above the surface 
of the boiling water. Test temperature of the inner part of 
double boiler when surrounded by boiling water. 
Make beverages with tea, cofifee or cocoa. If the lesson, on water 
is given in warm weather make lemonade or some fruit sherbet. 

V Fruit 

An important food to be eaten daily ; a luxury only when out of 
season or imported at high prices ; contains sugar, valuable 
acids and mineral salts ; make list of average prices of most 
common fruits when in season ; preserved by drying, canning 
and similar processes ; comparative economy of canning fruit 
at home and purchasing canned fruit: comparative cost of 
dried and canned fruits 



10 

Principles of cookery : Cleanliness in serving uncooked fruit ; 
cooking desirable for softening the libers, thus increa.-ing 
digestibility; flavor developed by cooking; sterilization an 
important element in the cookery of fruit 

Principles of preservation 

1 Sterilization of the fruit by cooking at the boiling point to 
destroy molds, yeast and bacteria. Sterilization of cans 
for the same purpose 

2 Sealing of the jar or can that contains the sterilized fruit 
to prevent the entrance of air which may contain molds, 
yeast or bacteria 

3 Drying or evaporating, thus removing the moisture which 
makes it possible for these organisms to develop 

4 In addition to sterilization, the use of substances that act 

as preservatives : viz : sugar, vinegar, spices 
a Candying; that is cooking in a heavy sugar s} rup and 

drying off 
b Jelly and jam making, and " preserves " where a large 
amount of sugar is used. 
Note. A small amount of sugar will encourage fermentation, but a 
large amount acts ;is a preservative. 

(" Picklmg ; with vinegar alone, or with vinegar, sugar and 
spices 
Practical work : Dainty serving of fresh fruit ; stew, bake and 
steam fresh fruit ; dried fruit cooked, compared with flavor 
of canned; how to use canned fruit (canned fruit exposed 
to air or reheated before serving to improve ilavor) ; can 
fruit; make jam and jelly. 

VI Milk 

Natural food of the young; contains all elements for building 
the body — muscle, fat, bone and other tissues, and supplies 
energy; these elements are protein, found in the curd, sugar, 
mineral salts and fat ; how to secure clean milk at the dairy 
and at home ; dangers from milk if not clean ; average cost to 
consumer ; milk a substitute for other foods containing 
protein ; to be taken as a food with the meal and not as a 
drink merely ; value of skimmed or sour milk as a food and 
in cookery 

Principles of cookery: Milk is less digestible if heated al^we 
140° F. Important if milk is to be prepared for children, 
mot to heat above this point 

Practical work: Set milk, skim cream; use rennet to separate 
curd; make dessert of rennetted milk (flavor with ch.oco- 
late) ; or make gelatine blanc mange. 



11 

VII Eggs 

Eggs also contain all elements of nutrition (for the young chick) ; 
rich in protein and a good meat substitute when not too 
costly ; may be stored when abundant ; abuses of cold stor- 
age ; fair prices to consumer; not to be used lavishly in 
cookery when prices are high ; test for eggs fresh enough 
for use 
Principles of cookery : Cooking does not materially aflfect the 
digestibility of eggs ; egg more delicately cooked below the 
boiling point of water ; if hard cooked, better to serve 
chopped 
Practical work : Dainty serving of raw egg, beaten, flavored 
with fruit juice or essence; cook egg below boiling point of 
water; poach egg; make dainty dish of hard cooked eggs; 
make plain or light omelet, etc. 
Test egg for freshness by placing it in a glass containing saturated 
solution of salt. If the egg sinks it is fresh enough for use. If it 
rises to the top it should be discarded. 

VIII Cereals 

Contain all the food elements, stored for the young plant; protein, 
oils, mineral salts, sugar, and starch not found in milk and eggs ; 
most common varieties in use — -wheat, corn, oats, rye and 
barley ; less common but valuable breakfast foods from the 
last two; forms of breakfast food are granulated, flaked, par- 
tially cooked, " ready to eat " ; the latter often made from in- 
ferior grain. 
In Imping select staple kinds, avoiding inferior novelties; an 
im])i;i-tant, economical breakfast dish, if well cooked; serve with 
toa.st to insure mastication (often made more attractive if served 
with fruit ) ; compare cost of several varieties ; amount and cost for 
a famih- breakfast 

Principles of cookery: Cereals dropped into rapidly boiling 
\\ater, to be followed by long cooking below the boiling point ; 
fiber not a food, but must be softened to free the food ele- 
ments : starch, thus treated to secure hydration and some of 
the chemical changes otherwise produced by digestion ; im- 
portant to use practical methods for the long process without 
using extra fuel 
Practical work : Cooking of a few typical cereals, noting pro- 
portions of water with granular or flaked ; use a fireless 
cooker if possible; use left-over cereal by molding with fruit 



12 

for a dessert and by browning in a fat, such as suet ; ( men- 
tion use of left-over cereal for muffins and bread ) : make 
cornstarch dessert ; tapioca dessert. 
Extra experiments ; use iodine test for starch before cooking ; 
Fehling's solution for sugar after long cooking. 

IX Vegetables 

Old beans and peas rich in protein ; young peas, young beans, 
sweet corn, rich in sugar ; roots and tubers rich in starch ; 
stems, leaves, flowers, contain vegetable acids and mineral 
salts — the last their chief vadue ; vegetables inexpensive 
in season; made seasonable by storage and by canning; laws 
that should insure wholesomeness of all preserved vegetables ; 
careful cleansing of all green vegetables in the kitchen. 
Principles of cookery : Fiber rendered soft in tough vege- 
tables ; starch to be cooked wdien present ; principal point is 
the retention of the mineral salts, absolutely necessary to 
health ; avoid boiling and throwing away the water ; use little 
water and utilize the liquid product ; better to steam or bake, 
thus avoiding all waste. 
Practical work: Cook two or three seasonable vegetables; 
bake and steam ; serve daintih' ; make vegetable soups. 

Note. Serving a vegetable in " white sauce " does not compensate 
for faulty cooking; better to develop flavor by proper cooking and 
omit the sauce. 

X Fats and oils 

bloods high in energy value ; both animal and vegetable valuable : 
scale of cost from beef fat to olive oi'l ; problem of utilizing the 
cheaper fats in cookery and in the dietary. 
l<"at retards digestion in the stomach, therefore large amount at 
end of heavy meal to be avoided; suitable with a meal light in meat 
food ; constant use as a cooking medium to be avoided. An emul- 
sion makes the fat more readily available (olive oil with egg and 
lemon juice, for instance). 

l^rinciples of cookery : To make emulsion with egg. or egg 
and some liquid ; to prevent decomposition by too high tem- 
perature ; to prevent coating of other food sttiff with fat ; 
in browning of food to use as little fat as possible ; if deep 
fat is used, temperature not below 350^ F. ; careful draining 
when food is hot. 
Practical work: Cook bacon; ti"y out lieef fat; clarify fat u-ed 
for cooking; whip cream for a dessert; make salad dressing 
with butter — witli cream — with olive oil 



13 

XI Meats and poultry 

l^urnisli protein and fat; in present conditions expensive source 
of protein ; conditions that inriuence cost of meat ; conditions 
in transportation, storage and local markets that afifect 
the vvholesomeness of meats; government inspection of 
slaughter houses, cold storage plants, markets ; preserved 
by salting, smoking, canning; pure food laws in regard to 
canned meats; how to buy meat and care for it in the home; 
cuts that furnish nutriment at least cost ; amount for a given 
family for a day ; utilization of all left-overs ; study of 
seasoning — herbs, spices, vegetables — that give delicious 
flavors 
Principles of cookery : Moisture and long cooking at tempera- 
ture below the boiling point of water soften the connective 
tissues that make "tough'' meat; juices extracted at low 
temperature, or in cold water ; more use should be made of 
low temperature process, such as stewing, and braizing for 
tough meat and fowl ; in this connection the fireless cooker 
is valuable ; high temperature necessary only for searing or 
coating surfaces that the juices may be retained, and for 
developing flavor on the surface — as in broiling. A point 
to notice in meat cookery is the destruction of objectionable 
organisms in case they are present. Where ptomaines have 
been formed b}' the development of bacteria, cooking does 
not, hiTiwever, destroy the ptomaines. Where meat or broth 
is to be cooled, for reheating later, or for serving cold, the 
cooling process should be made a'^ rapid as possible. An 
excellent method is to place the vessel containing the meat 
or broth where it may be surrounded by running water. 
Practical work: Broil and roast; pan-broil with no additional 
fat ; make palatable stew and dishes from tough cuts, and 
fowl ; made-over meat dishes. 

XII Gelatine 

(jelatine is a nitrogenous substance obtained from bones, liga- 
ments and other connective tissues ; used alone it has little 
nutritive value but in combination with other foods it is 
useful ; to some extent it saves waste of albuminous tissues. 
Gelatinous substance may be obtamed from boiling for sev- 
eral hours such material as calves' feet, ox tails, etc. ; after 
clarifying, straining and boiling down this may be used for 
jelh-. The ordinary commercial forms are either granulated 
or shredded, and are convenient for common use. 



14 

Principles of cookery : The prepared gelatine is softened bv 
soaking in cold water; when thus softened it is readily dis- 
solved by boiling water or other liquid. When cool, it again 
stiffens ; if boiled for any length of time it loses its stiffening 
property. After gelatine is dissolved and when the liquid 
is partially cooled the gelatine may be whipped like white 
of egg. 

Practical work : Experiment with the softening and dissolving 
of the gelatine. Note the proportion of a given kind neces- 
sary for a quart of liquid. Make fruit jelly ; make fruit 
" sponge," whipping the gelatine. 

XIII Fish 

A protein food, and valuable as a meat substitute: best when 
freshly caught : can be kept on ice for a short time : pre- 
served by salting, smoking, canning, and in oil: tests for 
proper freshness ; best and cheapest when in season : proi)er 
care at home after purchase: season and cost of most com- 
mon kinds: cooperation with work of Fisheries Commission 
by avoiding use of those varieties which are protected by 
law (as trout in country districts, "short" lobsters at the 
shore) 

Principles of cookery : To render more palatable : to avoid 
breaking by the softening of the connective tissue by rapid 
boiling ; to avoid toughening of the fiber ; cooking in the oven 
one excellent method 

Practical wxirk : Bake a slice of fish ; stuff and bake whole 
fish : use left-over fish in scalloped dish with crumbs, potato 
or tomato: in fish balls: prepare salted — smoked fish: use 
canned salmon. 

Note. A point should be made of the use of salted, dried and 
canned fish, with dainty serving and eatable garnishes or savorj- sauce 
to make the fish tempting. 

Shellfish : Desirable for variety, not highly nutritive : must 
be perfectly fresh ; under existing conditions to be avoided 
raw : use of canned shellfish not to be encouraged. 

XIV Milk products 

Cheese : Contains the most nutritive part of the milk : rich in 
protein : cream cheese contains both protein and fat : a cheap 
meat substitute ; a concentrated form of fcx)d, to be eaten in 
small quantities or in combination with other food materials. 



15 

Principles of cookery : A low temperature necessary ; tough- 
ened by high temperatures 

Practical work : Make cottage cheese from sour milk ; make 
cheese toast ; use cheese with macaroni, etc. 

XV Batters: plain and sweet 

A valuable group, since they contain flour, milk, eggs, butter and 
sometimes sugar, thus supplying much nutritive material ; 
if thoroughly baked are not unwholesome food, when not 
taken in excess and altogether in place of yeast breads ; can 
be made without any other leavening agent than air ; discuss 
the use of commercial baking powder versus cream of tartar 
and soda; common adulterations in poor grade baking 
powders ; use of soda with sour milk ; note the substance 
remaining in the batter as the result of the action of the acid 
and alkaline substances ; use of left-over cereals in muffins. 
Cake really a nutritive food if not taken in excess and if 
comsidered as part of a meal. Cake only a luxury when 
excessive amount of butter and eggs are used; an injury 
only when made a staple article of diet ; much time and 
energy often wasted in cake making ; compare bakery prod- 
ucts with homemade cake for cost and quality. 
Principles of cookery ; Careful and thorough mixing. Baking 
at temperatures that have relatioii to the size of the cake or 
loaf; in all cases thorough baking 
Practical work: Make variety of l)atters — plain and sweet; 
emphasize the mixing and baking and economy of material. 

Note. Teach the use of reheated muffins and other quick breads. 

XVI Bread 

Made from wheat tiour, rye, graham and other materials, in addi- 
tion to the wheat, as corn and rye meal, cooked cereals ; 
new process white dour contains more availal)le nutriment 
than whole wheat flour ; a blend of flour combining that made 
from winter wheat with spring wheat is considered the i)est 
for bread ; bread raised with yeast has better flavor and 
texture and is more wholesome than quick bread made with 
baking powder ; bread made at home versus bread made in 
public bakeries; compare quality and cost of homemade and 
baker's products ; use of bread machines when bread is made 
at home, saving labor ; use of patent yeast made under cleanly 
conditions ; great care in making yeast if done at home ; care 
of bread after baking 



Principles of cookery : Thorough mixing of materials to give 
proper texture; care in regard to temperature in which yea.-c 
works hest, about 70 degrees to 80 degrees F. ; time element 
important that acid fermentation may not develop ; thorough 
baking to destroy yeast and give good crust 

Practical work: Experiment with yeast in a sweetened liquid 
at temperatures from the freezing to the boiling point of 
water ; use microscope, and reference books. Make yeast 
(in those sections where homemade yeast is necessary ) . Make 
white bread ; bread with other materials ; make rolls ; make 
sweet bread ; make toast ; prepare crumbs from left-over 
bread, etc. 

XVII Combinations of food materials in desserts and salads 

These dishes not necessarily luxuries ; they contain nutritive 

material in palatable form ; when considered as an essential 

part of a meal and not an addition after svifificient food has 

already been eaten, not unwholesome : they becom.e luxuries 

onl}- when high-priced materials are used to excess. 

Note the relation of particular salads and des%erts to given 

meals — for instance, a heavy salad, containing meat main dish at 

luncheon ; light salads, part of a heavy meal ; desserts with eggs and 

milk, or rich in fat, belong at the end of a meal light in meat food 

and other fats ; fruit dessert after a meal that supplies meat in 

abundance. Study particularly, simple desserts and salads that 

utilize left-over material and that cost little. 

XVIII Sugar 

A .substance found, for commercial purposes, in sugar cane and 
the sugar beet, and present in vegetables and fruits ; a valu- 
able food material if not used in excess ; amount to be 
eaten daily, varies from two ounces for young children to 
four ounces for adults ; economic use of sugar in cakes and 
desserts; easy to oversweeten such articles; comparative 
wholesomeness and economy of homemade candy and candy 
from the shop; candy habit to be controlled; when it is best 
to eat candy and how much ; estimate of personal expendi- 
ture for candy. 
Principles of cookery : Sugar made into syrup by cooking 
with water ; becomes thicker if process is prolonged! and water 
evaporated ; is changed by cooking with an acid ; heated with- 
out water forms caramel, to be used for coloring and 
flavoring. 



17 

I'ractical work : The making of syrup in preserving lessons ; 
making of one or two candies; use caramel flavoring in some 
dessert. 

XIX Beverages 

Tea, cofiee, cocoa contain extractives, giving ag"reeal)le flavors; 
also nervous stimulants — theine, — caffeine, theo-bromine. 
Cocoa is chocolate deprived of fat; chocolate used as a bev- 
erage, should be looked upon as a food on accoiuit of its fat 
content. Tea and coft'ee should not be taken regularly Ijy 
young people, nor in excess at any time ; tea and coffee never 
given to little children. Compare Chinese and Ceyloif teas ; 
inote difference in cost of different grades of coffee and tea ; 
some common forms of adulteration in cheap grades. 
Principles of cookery: In tea avoid boiling; in coft'ee better 
not to boil and never more than 5 minutes ; in cocoa and 
chocolate avoid long cooking with the milk. 
Practical work ; Make tea, coft'ee, cocoa and chocolate. 

XX Meals 

All fo.od principles must be represented in- the meal ; amount oi 
food in weight of .materials necessary for a grown person 
or family, for a day, or for a week ; balanced variety in 
meals ; the type of meals that can be furnished at given 
amounts of money per capita, per day ; proportion* of food 
expenditure to the family income ; pleasing tabte service ; 
study of table furnishings. 

Dietary for infants: discussion of food for invalids. 

Practical work : Serving of as many meals- as possible : co- 
operation in preparing the school luncheon ; make list of 
foods and dishes under the head of protein, fat. carbohydrate, 
mineral salltsr; find cost of these : use this table as a basis 
for the making of menus; prepare infants' food; prepare 
tray for invalid. 

XXI Sanitation of the kitchen and house ^ 

This may, or may not be treated as a separate topic. It is neces- 
sary at the beginning of the course to give a lesson- on the care 
of the kitchen, and this has to be followed up in each lesson. 
It is well, if time permits, to give the whole of a lesson occa- 
sionally to the question of cleanliness and good methods in 
housework, taking up the care of the refrigerator, cleanliness 
in the handling of food, and the care of sink and drains. A 
lesson may be developed on the discussion of the disposal of 

iSeeplso Farmers' Wives' Bulletins; No. 3, The Laundry; No. 4, BacterioloKV of the 
l-oi'.schold. 



18 

waste in general and the question of water supply, the topics 
treated depending upon the locality where the lesson is given. 
Where a complete course of laundering is not possible the 
proper care of dish towels must be taught, and two or three 
lessons at least on laundering may be given. The same holds 
good in regard* to home care of the sick where time does not 
permit any. number of lessons on home nursing. Under some 
one of the given tcipics a few dishes can be prepared for an 
invalid. This may lead the way, if the teacher chooses, to a 
discussion of the general care of an invalid, with perhaps two 
or three lessons devoted to this specific subject. 
In* using these topics the needs of the particular neighborhood 

must always be borne in* mind and practical work selected that will 

be especially useful in a given neighborhood. 

DOMESTIC ART 

In.troduction 

General suggestions to teachers 

The use of drafting and pattern making 

Helps of various' kinds 

Courses 

I General 

II Dressmaking and millinery 

This syllabus is planned for the general high schools in vil- 
lages and small cities rather than for manual training, technical, 
or vqcati'onal high schools in the large industrial centers of the 
State. It consists of ( i ) a general course of garment making, 
complete in itself and (2) a more advanced course in dressmaking 
and millinery for those schools which desire to give twO' years to 
domestic art. Each course is supposed to cover five periods 
throughout the year, four laboratory work and one quiz. The gen- 
eral course can be placed in either the first or second year. In 
schools where cooking has been taught in the grade immediately 
before the high school the sewing and dressmaking are often placed 
in the second and third high school years that cooking may be in 
the first, thus giving the students two consecutive years of each 
subject. The syllabus shows the instruction to be given by the 
teacher and the work which the students are to do. 

General suggestions for teachers. Lessons ir. art should l)e 
given in connection with both the general and advanced course. 
An art teacher who knows the technic of dressmaking or the do- 



19 

mestic art teacher should teach the students to design their own 
decoration for their garments. Some simple costume design will 
help to obtain better results in both dressmaking and millinery. 

Discussions of the work and related subjects should occur regu- 
larly. The hour for the cjuiz is set apart for this purpose. In 
addition from live to ten minutes may well be taken at almost 
every laboratory lesson to discuss pliases and difficulties of the 
work in hand an.d to save time by giving clear ideas to the students. 
Illustrations should accompany these discussions. The students 
should bring samples of material for consideration that they may 
learn how to buy more intelligently. They can test these materials 
in various ways, such as washing, shrinking, burning, putting in 
the sun, tearing, rubbing and finding thin places. If stores, mills 
or museums are near, the class should be taken to them after due 
preparation that each student may observe materials and processes. 
Every teacher must adapt her teaching to the community about her 
and to the needs of the students. A prosperous and cultivated 
agricultural neighborhood needs very different suggestions and 
plans from a manufacturing community of uneducated, yet well to 
do workers. The teacher must make a point of knowing local con- 
(Htions and needs, fit her work to them, and watch if improvement 
follows. She must influence the students in localities where money 
is sc3,rce to buy good but inexpensive materials and, if necessary, 
teach them to renovate and to make over rather than to make new 
garments only. The instruction should never be by dictation but, 
after free discussion, which she must lead wisely, the teacher ma}' 
give direct help where it is needed. Plans and decisions should be 
made by the students that they may learn to depend upon them- 
selves. The teacher must watch the way the class works, and in- 
sist on persistent industry leading to some speed. She should 
know how long the work should take that she may discourage waste 
of time. She must not allow poor, showy materials and cheap 
laces and embroideries to be used. The students can bring ma- 
terials from home or purchase from samples discussed in class. 
The teacher must know what the family is willing to spend on aiy 
garment and keep the girl to that price helping her to make an 
attractive result. Even poor families will buy materials if they 
know they will be wisely used on garments which would otherwise 
have to be bought. 

Notebooks should be kept by the students. The contents mast 
not be dictated but must be the free expression of the students 
on the points gained. They should contain facts of construction. 



20 

pattern making, draft and alteration; samples of materials with 
width and price ; and designs for garments and computations of cost. 
The teacher should revise the notebooks from time to tmie. Should 
it be necessary to furnish the class with exact knowledge of a draft, 
the material can be mimeographed and given to each student to 
insert in her notebook and thus save time. 

E.xaminations which occur from time to time in the schools 
sliould cover the making of patterns and the construction of 
garments, practical ideas in connection therewith, some demand for 
l)ersonal plans, and economic, textile, and other data. 

Knowing the content of other school subjects will be an aim of 
the good teacher that she may use the information the students are 
gaining in practical ways and make them feel that labor, to be 
riglitly done, requires the utilization of academic knowledge. 

Pattern making and drafting. Drafting of patterns is fre- 
([uently used to accompany garment making in the high school. 
it is of doubtful benefit when it is given with set dictated rules, 
for it develops independence neither of thought nor of action. To 
be sure each girl may make a pattern for herself or for another, 
l)ut sihe has usually gained little in understanding how to adapt the 
draft to changing fashions or how to cut and fit easily in her own 
home. The real service which drafting may render has been lost 
in such cut and dried lessons. The good dressmaker or the able 
woman in her home, does not rely on drafting to make every new 
l)attern ; she is superior to it. She can take any pattern she has 
and adapt it to her purpose. She completely cuts it over or in- 
creases it here or decreases it there until a good result is obtained. 
The aim of a course of lessons in drafting should he to give each 
])upil ability of a similar character. Freedom from set rules and 
the knowledge of how to go to work is much more necessary than 
merely having a good pattern. Drafting therefore, should be a 
means to an end, and not an end in itself. Through it students 
should learn the form of the body, the way patterns are made and 
the points of construction. They should be able to appreciate good 
line, to utilize and alter patterns which can be purchased and should 
know how to adapt any given one to dilTerent figures or to changing 
styles. The school can not go far in this work, but it is imporiant 
that the right start should be made. The aim should be to have 
eacli girl comprehend the use of the dififerent parts of paper pat- 
terns. A free-hand drafting system may aid in this knowledge if 
taught intelligently. No matter how clever a demonstrator a 



21 

teacher is, she will fail to give as much help in explaining a Iraft, 
as will be obtained by a girl in her own crude efforts toward using 
some pattern or making one for herself, as a step toward regular 
drafting. The regular patented systems of drafting on the market 
are of less value in the schools than the simple freehand ones, iw 
Iheir methods are less evid'=*nt, and the manufactured curves take 
the place of the free-hand line which constantly improves as the 
student gains experience. It can easily be seen that lessons in an 
should be able to comprehend and use them. If free-band drafting 
In the homes bought patterns are very generally used. Students 
should be able to comprehend and use them. If free-hand drafting 
can be made a factor in this it should be given, its place being to 
follow some general idea of pattern making rather than to precede 
or take the place of it. Each girl through these lessons should 
gain in ability quickly to cut and fit a waist, coat or skirt of any 
kind. She should gradually gain in original ideas and in the ability 
to utilize any picture she sees or pattern she may have. 

Helps. Collect advertisement slieets of clothing, lace and 
embroidery ; samples of materials of all kinds with name, cost and 
width. Consult the best of the home magazines to obtain clippings 
or to make notes. Some of these periodicals have excellent sug- 
gestions on simple garment making and on pattern making and 
drafting. Collect pictures from advertisements and magazines ; and 
examine loan collections from various sources illustrating po'nts 
needed. Valuable for reference are yearbooks such as those of tlie 
Consumer's League, the Municipal League, the Child Labor League, 
the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 
Students should visit shops, libraries, museums and mills, and 
should watch book lists for new and suggestive literature. A Fi'g- 
gestive list of domestic art books can be found in .4 Sciving Course^ 
which also gives directions for sewing and instruction in methods 
of teaching it- 
Outline of work 

/ General course. One year 

I Sewing. The stitches required in garment making, if not mast- 
ered in the elementary school, must be learned as needed. 
Girls of the first and second high school year, however, should 
not sit and sew by hand any longer than necessary. Sewing 

1 Woolman, A Sewing Course. Published by F. A. Fernold, 217 Utica St., 
Buffalo, N. Y. $1.50 net. 



22 

therefore should not be continuous in a course but should be 
alternated with cutting, measuring, machine work and the 
various parts of garment construction. Even if the students 
do not know how to sew they should not be expected to make 
perfect stitches but should be required to practise long enough 
only for the work to be usable. They should then apply the 
acquired knowledge on some article or garment. Pincushions, 
needleboo'ks or small bags are useful to the students and may 
be utilized for practice in various stitches and seams. Ma- 
chine and hand sewing may be combined in various interesting 
articles if the class needs much practice before beginning on 
the garments. 
Necessary stitches and combinations of stitches should alone be 
given. The following are suggestive as sufficient for most 
garments : running, gathering, and stroking stitching or some 
similar strong stitch, hemming, overhanding, overcasting, slip 
stitching and buttonholes ; seams, such as the French and the 
fell, plackets for drawers, skirt or shirtwaist sleeves, and. put- 
ting on a l)and often need some slight practice before being 
applied to the garment. Decorative stitches may be required 
such as cross-stitch, herringbone, featherstitching, hemstitching 
and satin-stitch. 

II [Machine stitching. The use and care of the machine must be 
carefully taught. Much practice is needed for straight and 
curved lines for tucking, and for the use of the attachments. 
There should be the minimum of practice on models, for ex- 
perience can be gained more rapidly on such articles as cooking 
aprons and caps, laundry bags, pillow cases or a short kimono. 
A few articles of this kind may if necessary precede the work on 
garments. 

III Garment making. Using machine work and hand sewing 
I Kinds 

d Underclothing: drawers, chemise, underwaist, nightgown, 

flannel petticoat and muslin underskirt. A choice of two or 

three can be made from these garments according to the 

knowledge of the class and simplicity of the finish. 

b Other clothing: shirtwaist or jumper of cotton material, and 

collar or stock for the former. Cutting from pattern or 

drafting, uniting parts, fitting and making will be required. 

Skirt of cotton material such as gingham, pique or duck 

A simple muslin dress may be made in place of the shirt- 



23 

waist and skirt. No elaborate inserting of lace or decora- 
tion should be attempted. 
Each member of the class should do her own planning of 
her garment, choose her material and decide on the cost. 
She should select or design the decoration. No two gar- 
ments should be alike and often it is well for students to 
choose and make different kinds of garments and compare 
results. The need of the student should be a factor in 
choice. Commercial patterns may be used or the garments 
may be drafted by the class. Opportunity for adapting, 
changing patterns and fitting should be given. 
2 Decoration. This should be extremely simple but attractive. 
Suggestions : Herringbone on flannel skirt, cross-stitching (m- 
chain-stitch for marking undergarments with initials ; feather- 
stitching, hemstitching and satin-stitdh for decoration of collars, 
cuff's or yokes. 

I\^ Alternative suggestions in place of some of the garments 

1 Darning, patching and making over. Darning stockings, under- 
wear and sweaters. Darning and patching bed and table 
linen. Patching clothing, holes, worn places and under arms. 
Cutting over or altering sleeves, waists and skirts. Shortening 
or lengthening skirts. Choice may be made from the above 
list. All of this work should be done on articles needing these 
repairs. They may be provided by the students or supplied 
by the teacher. Family mending may be brought to the class 
if the teacher knows the home conditions to be good. 

2 Articles for cooking classes: (to be given when cooking fol- 
lows the sewing) aprons and caps (for kitchen and serv- 
ing), towels hemmed, marked and provided with hangers. 
Napkins and table cloths hemmed with napery stitch and 
marked 

3 iMillinery (spring). Bow making (practice may be on tissue 
paper before using silk) ; wiring and lining a straw hat: making 
milliners folds and placing on hat : renovating materials — lace, 
velvet and silk ; trimming hat with these if desired ; or making 
lingerie hat on a purchased frame 

V Discussions in connection with lessons at quiz or at laboratory 
periods 
Suggestions : 

I For clothing. The uses of the necessary stitches, seams and 
parts of the garments : the best materials for various pur- 



24 

poses ; the designing, making, laundrying, care and repairing 
of cotton clothing; effect of sun and laundry on colored 
cottons; the number of garments needed and the cost as re- 
lated to income ; economical planning and cutting ; underwear 
for different seasons; health of body and the relation of 
various textiles to it; hygienic and comfortable dress, and 
its relation to efficiency ; the comparison oi showy vs s'imple 
decoration ; the use of closets, hangers, drawers and boxes 

2 For textiles. Where cotton comes from, why it is inex- 
pensive, how it differs from linen, the properties of both, 
what each is best used for. Methods of making cloth, warp 
and woof, judging values of materials by feel, look, tearing 
and fraying; the cost, width and worth of cotton and linen 
materials 

3 Economic and social ideas. The division of income for 
clothing in the average family ; plans for simple, attractive 
yet inexpensive garments, the laundry as a factor in expense, 
renovating and making over. The working girls in white 
work factories, their lives, work and wages ; the family 
seamstress and her pay ; bargain sales 

4 Arithmetic (|uestions involving fractions in such problems as 
the amount of material needed to cut into bias bands for a 
given space and the cost of the same in different materials. 
The amount of material which should be purchased when 
tucks of a given depth are to be used, estimates of the cost 
of garment involving all the materials, trimmings and find- 
ings needed. Making out of bills and receipts, how much a 
worker can make per day on under-garments and simple cot- 
ton uniforms if paid by the piece 

// Dressiiiaki)i(/ and niiUiiicry course. One vcar 

Advanced course to follow the general course on garment con- 
struction 
The object is to give the girl some technical skill which she can 
increase by practice. This course will give the student a voca- 
tional foundation useful at home or in trade, and is suitable for the 
third or fourth year of the high school. 
I Problems 

I Review of principles learned in general course of sewing and 
machine work 
a Each student should have a thorough knowledge of at least 
two machines, single and double thread, threading, regulation 



25 

of tension, oiling, cleaning, putting on band, putting in 
needle, special attaobnients, and running. 
b Garments: one of the following — underwaist with lace in- 
serted, short negligee, short baby dress, or fancy guimpe 

2 Cotton dress of sheer material with tucked bUnise wai>t with 

lace or embroidery inserted and gored skirt 
Requirements. The use of patterns or drafting, choice of 
materials and style of gown, decisions on cost, measuring, 
economical cutting, basting, fitting waist, hanging skirt, con- 
sideration of seams and bottom of skirt, plackets, and les>on 
in pressing 

3 Close fitting lining (pattern or drafting), cutting out and pm- 
ting together, fitting, seams finished and boned. This ])ro1jlcm 
can be simply practice or can be used for an inside lining for 
the following gown. 

4 Wool dress, waist and skirt: the use of patterns or drafting 
Requirements. Consideration of style, of waist, and style oi 

skirt (straight, gored, or circular). Choice of materials and 
<lecoration and questions of cost. Plans for seam finish 
(overcast, bound, turned in and run or pinked). Learning 
to make buttonholes on wool material, wool plackets and 
lielts, finishing of bottom of skirt (braids, facings and diist 
ruffles), fastenings (hooks and eyes and buttons). Lesson 
on wool pressing 

5 Decoration if desired, for collars, cufifs, belts, stocks, waist and 
yokes. Handmade trimmings as plaiting, cording, shirring or 
braiding, hemstitching, cross-stitching, featherstitching. French 
knots, satin-stitch or bullion stitch 

6 Millinery 

a Winter hat. Requiring a study of bandeaux, buckram and 
wire frame construction, covering frames, facings, binding-, 
and trimming practice (shirring, tucking, cording, rolled hem. 
plain fold, milliners fold, joining bias pieces, rosettes and 
bows) 
b Summer hat. Purchasing hat and facing, lining and trimming 

it, using some of principles learned before 
c Renovating. Ribbons, velvet, silk, lace, feathers and flowers. 
Each girl to bring materials from home to teach her how to 
make a collection of renovated materials for use when needed 
II Alternatives 

T .Silk or less expensive shirtwaist lined in place of wool dress 
2 Renovation and making over an old wool gown 



26 

III Discussions on such subjects as 

1 Clothing. How to make a machine give best service ; decora- 
tion and how to make it simple yet effective; how to test 
cloth ; how to buy ; what each girl should spend a year on 
her clothing; comparing ready-made with homemade clothing; 
cost of clothing in the management of home expenses 

2 Millinery. When a hat is becoming; color and detail in mil- 
linery ; making over old materials ; economy 

3 Health as affected by clothing. Wool and its uses in cold 
weather ; the effect of pressure on the body, corsets, hats, and 
belts. Weight in heavy garments, uneven temperature in thin 
stockings, low shoes, and lace guimpes in winter 

4 Consideration of the manufacture of the leading textiles; 
countries on which we depend ; our own trade ; standard ma- 
terials ; adulterations of materials ; the old historic textiles and 
the beautiful new ones 

5 Social and economic ideas in labor and cost of manufacture ; 
keeping accounts and the ethics of shopping 

6 Arithmetic problems in connection with the course, such as 
estimates of quantity and cost of materials, comparative cost 
of various gowns, and hats, percentage of gain or loss in pur- 
chase by wholesale or retail, of earning capacity, and use of 
income for various purposes 



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